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In this sweeping and insightful history, Henry Kissinger turns for the first time at book-length to a country he has known intimately for decades, and whose modern relations with the West he helped shape. Drawing on historical records as well as his conversations with Chinese leaders over the past forty years, Kissinger examines how China has approached diplomacy, strategy, and negotiation throughout its history, and reflects on the consequences for the global balance of power in the 21st century.

Since no other country can claim a more powerful link to its ancient past and classical principles, any attempt to understand China's future world role must begin with an appreciation of its long history. For centuries, China rarely encountered other societies of comparable size and sophistication; it was the "Middle Kingdom," treating the peoples on its periphery as vassal states. At the same time, Chinese statesmen-facing threats of invasion from without, and the contests of competing factions within-developed a canon of strategic thought that prized the virtues of subtlety, patience, and indirection over feats of martial prowess.

In On China, Kissinger examines key episodes in Chinese foreign policy from the classical era to the present day, with a particular emphasis on the decades since the rise of Mao Zedong. He illuminates the inner workings of Chinese diplomacy during such pivotal events as the initial encounters between China and modern European powers, the formation and breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance, the Korean War, Richard Nixon's historic trip to Beijing, and three crises in the Taiwan Straits. Drawing on his extensive personal experience with four generation of Chinese leaders, he brings to life towering figures such as Mao, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping, revealing how their different visions have shaped China's modern destiny.

With his singular vantage on U.S.-China relations, Kissinger traces the evolution of this fraught but crucial relationship over the past 60 years, following its dramatic course from estrangement to strategic partnership to economic interdependence, and toward an uncertain future. With a final chapter on the emerging superpower's 21st-century world role, On China provides an intimate historical perspective on Chinese foreign affairs from one of the premier statesmen of the 20th century.

Preface xv

Note on Chinese Spellings xix

Prologue 1

Chapter 1 The Singularity of China 5

The Era of Chinese Preeminence 8

Confucianism 13

Concepts of International Relations: Impartiality or Equality? 16

Chinese Realpolitik and Sun Tzu's Art of War 22

Chapter 2 The Kowtow Question and the Opium War 33

The Macartney Mission 35

The Clash of Two World Orders: The Opium War 45

Qiying's Diplomacy: Soothing the Barbarians 51

Chapter 3 From Preeminence to Decline 57

Wei Yuan's Blueprint: "Using Barbarians Against Barbarians," Learning Their Techniques 60

The Erosion of Authority: Domestic Upheavals and the Challenge of Foreign Encroachments 64

Managing Decline 69

The Challenge of Japan 77

Korea 80

The Boxer Uprising and the New Era of Warring States 86

Chapter 4 Mao's Continuous Revolution 91

Mao and the Great Harmony 92

Mao and International Relations: The Empty City Stratagem, Chinese Deterrence, and the Quest for Psychological Advantage 97

The Continuous Revolution and the Chinese People 106

Chapter 5 Triangular Diplomacy and the Korean War 113

Acheson and the Lure of Chinese Titoism 118

Kim Il-sung and the Outbreak of War 122

American Intervention: Resisting Aggression 129

Chinese Reactions: Another Approach to Deterrence 133

Sino-American Confrontation 143

Chapter 6 China Confronts Both Superpowers 148

The First Taiwan Strait Crisis 151

Diplomatic Interlude with the United States 158

Mao, Khrushchev, and the Sino-Soviet Split 161

The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 172

Chapter 7 A Decade of Crises 181

The Great Leap Forward 181

The Himalayan Border Dispute and the 1962 Sino-Indian War 184

The Cultural Revolution 192

Was There a Lost Opportunity? 197

Chapter 8 The Road to Reconciliation 202

The Chinese Strategy 203

The American Strategy 213

First Steps-Clashes at the Ussuri River 215

Chapter 9 Resumption of Relations: First Encounters with Mao and Zhou 236

Zhou Enlai 241

Nixon in China: The Meeting with Mao 255

The Nixon-Zhou Dialogue 262

The Shanghai Communiqué 267

The Aftermath 273

Chapter 10 The Quasi-Alliance: Conversations with Mao 275

The "Horizontal Line": Chinese Approaches to Containment 277

The Impact of Watergate 292

Chapter 11 The End of the Mao Era 294

The Succession Crisis 294

The Fall of Zhou Enlai 297

Final Meetings with Mao: The Swallows and the Coming of the Storm 303

Chapter 12 The Indestructible Deng 321

Deng's First Return to Power 322

The Death of Leaders-Hua Guofeng 327

Deng's Ascendance-"Reform and Opening Up" 329

Chapter 13 "Touching the Tiger's Buttocks": The Third Vietnam War 340

Vietnam: Confounder of Great Powers 341

Deng's Foreign Policy-Dialogue with America and Normalization 348

Deng's Journeys 356

Deng's Visit to America and the New Definition of Alliance 360

The Third Vietnam War 367

Chapter 14 Reagan and the Advent of Normalcy 377

Taiwan Arms Sales and the Third Communiqué 381

China and the Superpowers-The New Equilibrium 387

Deng's Reform Program 396

Chapter 15 Tiananmen 405

American Dilemmas 411

The Fang Lizhi Controversy 428

The 12- and 24-Character Statements 437

Chapter 16 What Kind of Reform? Deng's Southern Tour 440

Chapter 17 A Roller Coaster Ride Toward Another Reconciliation: The Jiang Zemin Era 447

China and the Disintegrating Soviet Union 456

The Clinton Administration and China Policy 461

The Third Taiwan Strait Crisis 471

China's Resurgence and Jiang's Reflections 478

Chapter 18 The New Millennium 487

Differences in Perspective 493

How to Define Strategic Opportunity 497

The National Destiny Debate-The Triumphalist View 503

Dai Bingguo-A Reaffirmation of Peaceful Rise 508

Epilogue: Does History Repeat Itself? The Crowe Memorandum 514

Toward a Pacific Community? 527

Afterword to the paperback edition 531

Notes 549

Index 585

Henry Kissinger served as national security advisor and then secretary of state under Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, and has advised many other American presidents on foreign policy. He received the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Medal of Liberty, among other awards. He is the author of numerous books and articles on foreign policy and diplomacy and is currently the chairman of Kissinger Associates, Inc., an international consulting firm.

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美国的例外主义是传经布道式的，认为美国有义务向世界的每个角落传播其价值观。中国的例外主义是文化性的，中国不试图改变他国的信仰，不对海外推行本国的现行体制。但它是中央帝国的传承者，根据其他国家与中国文化和政治形态的亲疏程度将它们正式划分为不同层次的“进贡国”。换言之，这是一种文化上的普世观。

中华文明的一个特点是，它似乎没有起点。根据有关黄帝的古代传说，他重建了而不是创建了一个帝国。早在黄帝之前，就已经有了中国。在历史意识中，中国是一个只需要复原，而无须创建的既有国家。

同时，中国历史上战乱频繁，中央政府几度荡然无存，天下大乱。但然而仿佛受一条亘古不变的自然法则的左右，中央政权每次垮台，都会被重建。每个历史阶段，都有一个志在统一的人物站出来，基本上沿袭黄帝的做法，征服敌手，再次一统中国。中国的每一次分裂都被视为不正常的暂时现象。每次改朝换代后，新朝均沿袭前朝的治国手法，再次恢复连续性。中华文明的精髓历经战祸考验，终得以延续。

中国的强盛时期

中华文明延续数千年，中国却从未主动与其他幅员一样辽阔、历史同样悠久的国家或文明打过交道。中国与他国之间时有商队往来，但作为一个社会，中国似乎不需要与同样幅员辽阔、文化发达的社会接触。

中国的光荣孤立在人类历史上独一无二，酝酿了一种独特的中国自我意识。。1850年，一位英国翻译家写道：

“对外国的排斥加上本国的封闭导致中国人根本没有比较的机会，这可悲地禁锢了他们的思想，使中国人完全无力挣脱自己的生存环境，评判任何事情皆套用中国的传统观念。”

儒家学说

中国得以延续至今，主要靠的是中国平民百姓和士大夫信奉的一整套价值观，而不是靠历代皇帝的镇压。

中国社会占统治地位的价值观源自一位古代哲学家的教诲，后人称其为“孔夫子”。

在一个儒家学说主导的社会里，好学是一个人贤达的关键。

孔子倡导一个等级制社会，认为一个人的首要义务是“恪守本分”。儒家秩序激励人们走治国平天下的道路。孔子思想着眼于现世，肯定的是一种社会守则，而不是来世的救赎。

皇帝位于中国等级秩序之巅。中国的礼仪减持以叩首的方式承认皇帝的主宰地位，即行三跪九叩大礼。皇帝扮演的第二个抽象角色是他作为“天子”的地位。这一角色暗示，他本人负有道德上的义务。皇帝施仁政，主仪典，严刑律，系天下万物“和谐”于一身。一旦荒淫无道，天朝即陷入混乱。当政的朝廷会为此丧失赖以治天下的“天命”，叛乱蜂起，直至改朝换代，重新恢复天下大同。

国际关系观念：公正还是平等？

中国眼中的世界秩序与西方生根的制度大相径庭。近代西方的国际关系观念产生于16-17世纪。当时欧洲的中世纪制度解体，产生了一批实力不相上下的国家。罗马天主教也分裂成为形形色色的教派。均势外交不是一种选择，而是必然结果。没有一国足够强大，从而可以把自己的意愿强加给他国，也没有哪一种宗教具有足够的权威，从而能畅行天下。各国主权平等和法律平等的概念成为国际法和外交的基础。

中国与西方形成鲜明对比，它从未长期地与另一国在平等的基础上交往过。原因很简单，中国从未遇过与中国文化类似或大如中国的社会。

中国挟其独特的传统和千年养成的优越感步入近代。这个独特的帝国声称它的文化和体制适用于四海，却不屑于去改变异族的宗教信仰；它是世界上最富饶的国家，却对与外国通商和技术革新漠不关心；它文化发达，却受制于一个对西方探险时代的来临一无所知的政治统治集团；它在辽阔的疆土上建立了一套政治体系，却对其即将威胁其生存的技术文化大潮茫然无知。

书籍介绍

In this sweeping and insightful history, Henry Kissinger turns for the first time at book-length to a country he has known intimately for decades, and whose modern relations with the West he helped shape. Drawing on historical records as well as his conversations with Chinese leaders over the past forty years, Kissinger examines how China has approached diplomacy, strategy, and negotiation throughout its history, and reflects on the consequences for the global balance of power in the 21st century.

Since no other country can claim a more powerful link to its ancient past and classical principles, any attempt to understand China's future world role must begin with an appreciation of its long history. For centuries, China rarely encountered other societies of comparable size and sophistication; it was the "Middle Kingdom," treating the peoples on its periphery as vassal states. At the same time, Chinese statesmen-facing threats of invasion from without, and the contests of competing factions within-developed a canon of strategic thought that prized the virtues of subtlety, patience, and indirection over feats of martial prowess.

In On China, Kissinger examines key episodes in Chinese foreign policy from the classical era to the present day, with a particular emphasis on the decades since the rise of Mao Zedong. He illuminates the inner workings of Chinese diplomacy during such pivotal events as the initial encounters between China and modern European powers, the formation and breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance, the Korean War, Richard Nixon's historic trip to Beijing, and three crises in the Taiwan Straits. Drawing on his extensive personal experience with four generation of Chinese leaders, he brings to life towering figures such as Mao, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping, revealing how their different visions have shaped China's modern destiny.

With his singular vantage on U.S.-China relations, Kissinger traces the evolution of this fraught but crucial relationship over the past 60 years, following its dramatic course from estrangement to strategic partnership to economic interdependence, and toward an uncertain future. With a final chapter on the emerging superpower's 21st-century world role, On China provides an intimate historical perspective on Chinese foreign affairs from one of the premier statesmen of the 20th century.